The Psychology of Woman

Student ID#: UPD71055HPS80208

Institution: AIU 

Professor

Date: 8^TH April 2021 

Topic: The Psychology of Woman

Signed:

Introduction 

The opinionating definition of a woman has raised much tension, and most scholars have given narrow definitions, especially among transactivist and feminist groups; however, there is no precise true definition of a woman since women are creatures who exhibit so much anatomical disposition in their activities and processes. Being a woman involves various characteristics and attributes associated with female nature; women can make life and evolution to humans.  The numerous differences women share with men regarding physical appearances and genetic compositions made them unique.  According to human history, the gender responsibilities group and their roles have limited, undermined, and defined women’s opportunities and activities in a wrong perspective. Certain religious groups and doctrines have also speculated specific laws for women in society, limiting women in all spheres. Of life with these laws, gender roles and restrictions have loosened in the 21st century, and women now have more access to political leadership and career roles. The psychology of women has significantly contributed to their increased participation in career and leadership roles as it helps them in challenging positions where they exhibit leadership roles such as critical thinking, decision-making, and others. Therefore, women are an essential part of society today; hence, it is vital to study their psychology. 

The American Psychological Association defines psychology as the scientific study of behavior and the mind (McLeod, 2019). Psychologists study how the mind works and how it can impact an individual’s behavior (Brazier, 2018). Psychology has various multi facets and study sub-fields such as health, sports, social behavior, human development, and cognitive processes (McLeod, 2019). During the early days of psychology, two dominant and exploratory theoretical perspectives of psychology regarding the mind’s functioning were identified. They included functionalism and structuralism (McLeod, 2019). The primary focus of structuralism was to break down the mental processes into small and essential components. Structuralism depended on introspection, a study and research method that allowed subjects to relate the happenings and events in their minds while carrying out a particular task (McLeod, 2019). However, introspection became unreliable as research subjects exhibited many variations in their general experiences (McLeod, 2019). The failure of structuralism paved the way for functionalism as functionalism contradicted structuralism developed by William James, an American psychologist (McLeod, 2019). According to James, the mind exhibits constant changes and is therefore pointless to consistently search for the structure of the mind’s conscious experience. James proposed that the primary focus be set on the mind’s purpose or functions and not the structure. 

Psychology involves studying the mind, which encompasses different components such as perception, cognition, feelings, volition, and sensory consciousness. Therefore, the psychology of women involves studying all these aspects, which makes women more sensitive, delicate to emotions and feelings. Studying women’s psychology will allow one to understand them better in terms of their feelings, emotions, behavior, cognitive and sensory attributes. This research will critically examine women’s psychological perceptions (Rutherford et al., 2012). It will also help to measure and determine femininity and masculinity in society.

Problem Statement

Women have more delicate, sensitive feelings and emotions than men. They tend to react and perceive things differently than men due to their mental, sensory, and cognitive processes. This study explores the behavior of women concerning their psychology. It explores the hormonal formation of women, such as estrogen and progesterone. It also looks into other female-related concepts such as childbirth, premenstrual and postmenstrual syndrome, Pregnancy, gynecological anatomy, mood swings, stress control, marital psychology, childish disposition, and home engagement. 

Need for the Study

Over the years, women of different races and ethnicities, gender identities, social classes, and sexual orientations have been exposed to different experiences. They have encountered numerous complex and dramatic challenges in society, mostly related to childbirth, caregiving, work, personal relationships, and education. Some of the changes in these areas have resulted in increased equality, improved life quality, and more women opportunities. However, despite these changes, women still face various concerns and challenges that hinder their involvement in various roles and responsibilities in society; it is essential to study and understand women’s psychology so that people can contribute through their actions towards making society a better place for women to live in (American Psychological Association, 2018). This study will help explore women’s emotions and feelings towards their issues and other concerns in society. It will explore how women perceive things and will help one understand women’s behavior and why they behave in a certain way. 

Research Questions

Various research questions are used to understand the psychology of women in different aspects. The primary research question of this study is on the premenstrual and postmenstrual syndrome in women. The premenstrual syndrome involves psychological, physical, and emotional disturbances that women experience during ovulation. It typically ends at the onset of women’s menstrual flow. Premenstrual syndrome has various symptoms such as mood swings, depression, irritability, oversensitivity, among others (Stöppler, 2020). Post-menstrual syndrome involves symptoms that occur after the end of a woman’s menstrual flow. It has emotional symptoms such as anxiety and physical ones like severe headaches (Sharkey, 2020). This study will explore women’s experiences with premenstrual and postmenstrual syndrome, the symptoms that come with aggression, and the phobia of the sight of a bloodstain. It covers some other symptoms that women face during premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes, such as mood swings and stress. The researcher also strives to understand some of the treatments available for some of these symptoms in general. Therefore, this study has an overarching research question and sub-questions that will help the researcher collect relevant data to have a broader topic scope. The research questions will also help gather information and gain insights on women’s behaviors, some of the critical biological processes or formation of the woman’s anatomy, and how it affects their feelings, emotions, and perceptions. 

The research questions are as outlined below.

1. Overarching Research Question

1. What is the attitude, knowledge, and perception of women towards premenstrual and postmenstrual syndrome?
2. What are the postmenstrual symptoms of women above 40 years of year?   
3. What are the signs of bearing a child at an older age and the consequences?  
4. What are the marital benefits for women? Even when subjected to submission to the union either by proxy, culture, race, or religious beliefs? 
5. What is the benefit of divorce for the female gender? 
6. How can one manage an aggressive and belligerent woman 
7. Sub Questions

1. Do women know about premenstrual and postmenstrual syndrome? 
2. What are some of the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome that women experience? 
3. What are some of the symptoms of postmenstrual syndrome that women experience?
4. What is the attitude of women towards premenstrual and postmenstrual syndrome? 
5. What is the impact of premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes on women’s lives?
6. What are some of the treatment options for both premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes? 
7. Is therapy for young women before and after menstrual flow essential? 

Literature Review

Understanding the psychology of the woman can be as laborious and unfurling as life itself. Several pieces of literature have been written in attempts to elucidate the psychology of a woman. According to Goldschmidt (1934), several aspects of the woman’s life affect both the woman’s physical and mental state. Such elements include the menstrual cycle, social perceptions, standings, psychological and physical wellbeing, among other factors. Thus, understanding a woman’s psychology calls for a deeper comprehension of what makes a woman have more sensitive feelings, distinct instincts such as home management or childish disposition, the female anatomy, and the hormones setting them apart from their male counterparts. 

Understanding the Woman’s Psychology

According to Chaplin (2015), several meta-analyses and studies have confirmed meager, though utterly significant, differences in the expression of feelings in adulthood. Predictably, women exhibit more tangible manifestations of feelings and emotions. This is more evident when expressing positive feelings. Most women tend to internalize negative emotions such as sorrow, anxiety, and sadness. Interestingly, both men show equal or greater heights of physiological arousal compared to women. Such arousals causing emotional stressors bring about cortisol responses and more significant blood pressure. Chaplin (2015) suggests that one of the best and critical ways to understand gender and emotions is to take a developmental perspective. 

In this regard, several theories have been proposed to explain women’s psychology and the emergence of behavioral differences. Generally, biologists agree that boys and girls exhibit innate differences related to biological factors. These factors exist either at birth or prenatally. Some prenatal factors include genes that underlie characteristics emerging at birth or unfolding later in development. These genes determine the production of hormones later in life. In females, estrogen plays an indispensable role during puberty, while in males, androgens bring about masculine traits at puberty. Thus, human biology is the primary initiator of core basic female reasoning, body features, feelings, and other femininities besides the social settings. 

These biological differences are evident even in early childhood. For example, studies have shown that boys have higher levels of arousals than girls. They also have less inhibitory control and language ability than their female counterparts in early childhood. Psychological theorists propose that children learn gender-role-consistent behaviors gradually through experience, socialization, and cognitive learning. Notably, the boys’ common language and inhibitory control capabilities lead them to a challenging expression of feelings and emotions. Such is evident in the minimal probability of using language to express or regulate emotions and an increased likelihood of exhibiting in-modulated negative emotions. 

Hormones control the behavior of human beings in most instances. They are known to be the sole initiator of moods, feelings, cravings, or desires, among other fatal human responses. As aforementioned, the male’s principal and specific hormones are the androgens, more specifically, testosterone. In females, the significant hormones are estrogen and progesterone. Due to biological processes that occur before, during, and after menses, women are prone to mood swings and behavioral changes, among other temporal changes. To understand the roles of these hormones in women’s behaviors, several studies have been conducted. The following research was carried out to determine the effects of hormones on human behavior. 

In this research, twenty-nine 51-year-old women who had undergone total bilateral oophorectomy and adrenalectomy due to breast cancer were surveyed (Waxenberg et al., 1959). Oophorectomy is the surgical removal of one or both of the ovaries. This review is crucial because one of the leading female hormones, estrogen, is produced in the uterus. On the other hand, adrenalectomy is the surgical removal of one or two of the adrenal glands. Adrenal glands, or the suprarenal glands, play a paramount role in the production of progesterone. Thus, removing the two crucial organs led to a slight or absolute absence of the female hormones in the body. 

Out of the 29 participants, 17 women had reported having sexual desires before the study; however, after the operation, 14 of them experienced a decrease in sexual desires. Most of them became unresponsive to sexual urges (Waxenberg et al., 1959). Thus, the study concluded that adrenalectomy has the most profound impacts on women concerning their sexual behaviors; it will be erroneous to assume that estrogen and progesterone affect only sexual behaviors. Despite the two hormones being reproductive, they profoundly affect the woman’s psychological and social environments. Thus, it is paramount to understand how hormones affect the general behavior and wellbeing of a woman. 

As Nelson (2010) states in his behavioral endocrinology, hormones affect behavior as much as behavior affects hormones. However, given that some hormones are produced on certain occasions in the female body (such as menses, childbirth, and lactation periods), and that is the only time when some behavioral changes are observed, it is conclusively valid that hormones affect women’s behavior on such occasions, and not the vice-versa. Hormones can be defined as the chemical messengers released from the endocrine glands that alter the nervous system to regulate an individual’s behavior and physiology (Nelson, 2010). 

Understanding the psychology of women based on hormonal behavioral changes has a long history. As organisms evolved from single-celled structures into multicellular organisms, the communication between and within the cells, populations, and individuals was a prerequisite to development (Nelson, 2010). In the process, the endocrine system developed. This system plays a crucial role in the intricate inter and intracellular communications. Most behaviors induced by hormones are reversible. This is majorly because most cells producing steroid hormones have receptors for their produced products. Thus, most autocrine cells secrete products capable of feeding back to affect operations in the cells that made them. 

Once again, the two hormones, estrogen, and progesterone are responsible for countless feminine qualities. Since time immemorial, women are attributed to their delicate and sensitive feelings and emotions. Consequently, women are also believed to have superior emotional competencies such as impeccable interpretation of people’s facial cues to understand the embedded emotions (Chen et al., 2018). After various studies, it is now agreed that women have outperformed males in emotional information processing, remembering of time, date and locations. Women are such creature that understands the rudiment of how things evolve faster than men, they are very proactive, they see faster with deep insight on matters than their male counterparts. The inspiration of a woman is such that she controls her environment with her body chemistry without uttering a word yet in charge. Most men have misunderstood this part of women and erroneously called or name it crafty or deceptive characteristics. However, as Fischer and LaFrance (2014) restate, the belief that women are more emotionally expressive than men may be more of cultural and individual stereotypes than actual sex differences between the genders, meanwhile despite various studies to revamp the same, one pattern is conspicuously reliable, women are more expressive than men. 

In terms of feelings, women express specific emotions more frequently than their male counterparts; in this narrative, females of the same age as the male counterparts are mostly more advanced, exposed, and sexually inclined than their age.  Studies have indicated that women express feelings of happiness, fear, and sadness more often; on n the other hand, men are typically associated with pride and anger. Women tend to cry and smile more often than men; the emotional expression reduces fatigue and increases the estrogen and progesterone, which will extend the menopause stage. When a woman allows pain and anger to be retained for too long, such negative emotions affect the physiological component of internal anatomy, and the ovaries stop making both hormones; the perimenopause that leads to menopause starts forming itself.

 Some feminine features are only limited to cultures; for instance, most cultures do not approve feelings and emotions from men. Phrases such as ‘Do not cry, you are a man’ or ‘Real men do not…’ or ‘You do stuff like a girl’ are common. They depict the place of an individual in society. Thus, besides hormones and other biological factors, the woman’s psychology is greatly affected by cultural settings. 

For instance, in many cultures, women were seen as objects and instruments of domestic operations. However, due to globalization leading to cultural interactions and exchanges, the modern woman is strong enough to fight for equal rights in various posts as their male counterparts. This is one reason why the Nigerian government created a ministry for women (Ministry of women affairs) but no such ministry as the Ministry for Men Affairs.  Unfortunately, some political settings also propagated the boy-girl inequalities. For example, some years back, the Kenyan education system was structured so that boys needed higher grades to enroll in higher learning institutions than girls (Dube, 2015). Even though this system was solely meant to promote girl education, it also had a dark side. It is easy for anyone fighting for social equality to decipher the implications the system had on the girl-child’s overall perception. 

Reducing the grades to advance their studies highlighted the perception that women were the weaker gender. Most boys, especially in high school, viewed girls as inferiors because they needed lower grades to enroll in universities. Interestingly, most of the girls outdid their counterparts in the national examinations. They were being considered the inferiors and pushed some girls to work extra hard to prove that they could also achieve what the boys achieved. Other girls felt discouraged, while others accepted their place in society. At last, women managed to shoulder-level their counterparts. However, the female Renaissance also has a long history. 

Role of History in the Modern Woman’s Thinking

Indubitably, most people are aware of gender-based roles. In the sixteenth century, painting art was strongly linked to the male gender. However, Lavinia Fontana (1552-1614) and Sofonisba Anguissola (1535-1625) are forever commemorated as the two women painters (Loh, 2020). The sixteenth and the seventeenth century were the best and worst of times for any lady to be artist. Their families urged the two to be painters. Anguissola holds the rare distinction of having been the most prolific self-portraitist of the Renaissance.

On the other hand, Fontana is accredited to approximately 150 works. However, the era was the worst time for a female artist because of the aggressively hierarchical male-dominated world. To be precise, one source remembers Anguissola for female particularity and congratulated her for rising ‘above the usual course of her sex, for whom wool and linen are the sole materials appropriate for their fingers and hands’ (Loh, 2020 p. 1). These remarks are enough to cause a significant gender upheaval in the contemporary world. This is because a lot has changed concerning the perception of women. The woman’s psychology places her under the same brackets as her male counterpart. 

It is also evident that a lot has changed concerning how women perceive themselves. Between 1848 and 1917, women’s movements were prevalent, especially in the United States of America (Office of the Historian, 2006). The fight for women’s suffrage arose in the United States in the mid-nineteenth century and was initiated by the women’s rights movement. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, a young mother from upstate New York, and Lucretia Mott, the Quaker abolitionist, led a group of approximately 300 people, most of whom were women, to the Seneca Falls Convention to highlight the direction for the women’s rights movement. 

Just like Elizabeth Cady Stanton, most women view themselves as objects of change. This self-perception had drastically changed compared to a few centuries back when the feminine voice was only heard in the kitchen and other domestic settings. Understanding the modern woman’s psychology calls for a deeper comprehension of the history, prejudices, stereotypes, injustices, and other unfair treatments the woman had received in this male-dominated world. However, it is also fair to say that the unfair treatment has initiated, nurtured, and erupted the feminine potential. Through the ages, most brave works by women have been noticed due to male oppression and dominance. This is evident in various legendary achievements by women. 

Some of the mothers behind the current psychology of women include the renowned writer Jane Austen (1775-1817), whose novels are still cherished up to date, and Anne Frank (1929-1945), who wrote a vivid description of the Second World War (Haddrick, 2018). The recently deceased Maya Angelou (1928-2014) is one of the most influential women in American history, perhaps because of her award-winning memoir, ‘I Know Why Caged Bird Sings.’ Other influencers include Catherine the Great (1729-1796), Queen Elizabeth I (1555-1605), and Sojourner Truth (1797-1885), an African American whose words belong to the most famous speeches by a woman (Haddrick, 2018). It is paramount to understand the names mentioned above are just but a drop in the ocean compared to the vast fleet of women heroes, both current and historical. 

With so many heroes and incredible achievements to draw inspiration from, it is now possible to elucidate the modern woman’s intricate and high-spirited psychology. However, it is also important to note that man is still dominant, and the tag war of power and liberation that started centuries ago is still on. 

The modern girl’s upbringing ensures that her psychology, especially self-perception and how she sees the world around her, aims to instill feelings of gender equality and self-worth. From school to home environments, young girls are taught that there are no limits to what they can achieve. However, it will be unwise to assume the biological and physiological differences between the genders. Given the instability, uncertainty, and anxiety brought by the transition between childhood and adulthood, the girl-child’s will and desire become wavy and vulnerable during the puberty stage. 

The Pre- and Postmenstrual Syndromes

Developing the modern woman calls for a deeper understanding of the female anatomy. Girls attain puberty between the age of 8 and 13 years. At this stage, the female body experiences the first taste of hormones. These hormones, prominently estrogen and progesterone, are produced in abundance to facilitate the transition from childhood to adulthood. They bring about many physical changes such as robust body growth, breasts, and hips enlargements, among other features (Allen & Miller, 2019). However, the significant contribution of these hormones in the psychology of the girl is the menstrual cycle.

A newly-born girl has approximately 1 million ova (Cleveland Clinic, 2019). The maturation of these eggs marks the puberty stage. In the presence of the follicle-stimulating hormones, the luteinizing hormones, estrogen, and progesterone, the mature egg is produced in the ovaries and safely removed from the body if fertilization does not occur. The ovum is produced once after approximately 28 to 30 days. The unfertilized ovum is expelled from the body as a mass of thick blood. This flow of blood is known as menses. Different people have different perceptions of the menstrual flow. Some cultures even go to the extent of flagging any girl at that stage as unholy or unworthy. 

This stage plays a crucial role in developing the girl’s psychological framework. Generally, the stage has three phases. The follicular phase is the first one, and it starts on the first day of the period. The two main hormones during this phase are the luteinizing hormone and the follicle-stimulating hormone. The second phase is the ovulatory phase. This happens approximately 14 days after the follicular phase. High volumes of estrogen hormone characterize it. This is the stage at which the woman is most fertile. Estrogen prepares the oviduct for fertilization. The last phase is the luteal stage. During this phase, the reproductive system prepares for the next phase, depending on whether fertilization occurs. 

Of the three stages, the most notable is the blood discharge or the menses. It lasts for approximately 3-5 days and, depending on the social settings; it marks the period in which one feels the pride, agony, or shame of being a woman. Again, given the high concentration of hormones in their bodies and given their direct link to behavior, it is understandable that women experience behavioral changes, mood swings, cravings and urges, deep emotions, and feelings, among other temporal changes brought by the hormones. 

Premenstrual Syndrome affects a woman’s emotions, behavior, and physical health before her menses (Higuera, 2019). It is a prevalent condition that affects 90% of menstruating women. Premenstrual Syndrome is paramount in this research because, besides the blood discharge, it is the only way a woman expresses her menses stage. The syndrome is characterized by high volumes of estrogen and progesterone hormones. These hormones cause irritability, mood swings, and anxiety. Some factors contributing to this condition include a family history of depression and Premenstrual Syndrome, substance abuse, domestic violence, and trauma. A severe condition is Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder which may include depression, suicidal thoughts, extreme anxiety, crying spells, trouble thinking or focusing, painful cramping, and bloating. 

Unfortunately, this is the period when the woman is bombarded with comments such as ‘You are emotional or irrational or ‘You ate a while ago,’ among other seemingly oblivious obsolete comments. Failure to understand the woman’s condition has led to several gender-demeaning conversations, which have irrevocably irreversible adverse effects on women’s psychological status. In the wake of this, various campaigns have been carried out, such as the Always Like A Girl campaign. 

Post-Menstrual Syndrome describes the syndromes that arise after periods. Interestingly, it is known to bring about more intense psychological symptoms than Premenstrual Syndrome (Sharkey, 2020). Unfortunately, the condition is not popular in the medical realm because it is yet to be recognized in mainstream medicine. There are no real terms for the complication, highlighting the need for research on the topic. Hormonal imbalances mainly cause it during the menstrual cycle. As opposed to the 90% of menstruating women who experience Premenstrual Syndrome, only 20% to 30% of the menstruating women experience Postmenstrual syndrome (Sharkey, 2020). Due to limited studies on the topic, postmenstrual Syndrome treatment is prescribed as mere treatment of depression or other complications arising from the syndrome. 

Given the delicate and sensitive nature of women’s feelings and emotions, it is imprudent to leave some of their challenges in the dark. Countless studies have to be conducted to determine and elucidate the symptoms, effects, and treatment of both Premenstrual and Postmenstrual syndromes. The future of a psychologically strong woman depends on how healthy society understands her and how she understands and perceives herself and society. In this way, the woman’s anatomy will be understood and appreciated by her society, significantly impacting her psychological wellbeing. 

Description

Research Methods

Qualitative research methods will be used in this study to collect and analyze data. Qualitative research focuses on collecting and analyzing non-numerical data such as audio and text. Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research focuses on participants’ experiences and opinions regarding the study’s problem. Qualitative research is appropriate for this study because it focuses on comprehending a given research question based on an idealistic or humanistic approach. Qualitative research methods will help the researcher understand women’s experiences and their attitudes and behaviors concerning various female-related research questions about women’s psychology. It will help the researcher collect non-numeric data that is most appropriate for this study’s research questions and data analysis. Although some researchers view it as a philosophically incongruent research method, qualitative research has become popular in recent years due to its ability to add new dimensions to interventional research topics and studies that cannot be assessed through quantitative research methods (Kalra et al., 2013). Qualitative research was initially applied in most psychological studies when psychologists realized how tedious it was to evaluate human behavior numerically. 

Qualitative research is diverse and, therefore, will be appropriate for this study. It has various categories that allow researchers to collect and analyze data in various fields. The three major qualitative research categories include observational studies, textual analysis, and interview studies (Kalra et al., 2013). Most of them exist in the field of clinical research. Qualitative research will be used in this study because it will give women the voice to talk about their experiences and attitudes towards psychological aspects. This is essential during research as it opens up the researcher to new concepts and aspects of the study and helps in modifying the study’s design if necessary. Therefore, qualitative research will be a perfect fit for this study. 

Research Methodology

The research methodology that will be used in this study is phenomenology. Phenomenology strives to understand situations, ideas, and problems from the common experience and understanding perspective rather than the differences people exhibit in a given research problem (Austin & Sutton, 2014). Phenomenology focuses on understanding the behavior of human beings and hence will be appropriate for this study. Phenomenology will help the researcher explore participants’ feelings, experiences, thoughts, and opinions towards the study’s research topic. 

Target Population

Before conducting any study, researchers must identify the target population and sampling procedure for the study. A target population refers to the group of people or individuals from which the researcher intends to conduct a study and draw the appropriate inferences. Generally, a target population involves the group that the researcher wants to know more about. Defining the target population for a study is consistently among the first steps when conducting research (Lavrakas, 2008).  The researcher is always required to define the study’s target population since the definition plays a critical role in determining the sample’s eligibility for the study. The researcher is always required to highlight and discuss the target population’s temporal and geographic characteristics and the study’s unit of analysis (Lavrakas, 2008). In this case, the target population will be women aged between 18 years to 45 years. With this target population, the researcher will develop a sampling procedure and select the appropriate sample for the study. 

Sampling

Sampling involves selecting individual members or a subset from a specific population to draw statistical inferences in a study and estimate the characteristics of the entire population. There are various qualitative sampling techniques that researchers can use when conducting their studies. These sampling techniques help researchers in identifying and recruiting participants for their studies. Qualitative sampling methods, also referred to as nonprobability sampling methods, are sampling methods in which the likelihood of a person or event is unknown. Some examples of nonprobability sampling techniques include quota sampling, snowball, purposive, and convenience sampling. In purposive sampling, the researcher usually has specific perspectives that he or she wishes to assess. The researcher then looks for the study’s participants who fully meet their perspectives. Purposive sampling is mainly used when the researcher wants to incorporate participants with diverse perspectives in the study or only wants to include people who meet an extremely narrow criterion. 

In snowball sampling, the researcher identifies specific individuals and relies on them to help bring more participants to the study. Researchers mostly use snowball sampling when they are conducting studies on stigmatized people and groups in society.  Quota sampling is a nonprobability sampling method that is usually used in qualitative and quantitative studies.  In this sampling method, the researcher identifies a specific category of people related to the study of subgroups for which the study will be based. Convenience sampling is a nonprobability sampling method that is also used in both qualitative and quantitative studies. In this sampling method, the researcher collects data from the researcher’s people that are most convenient for the study. In this study, convenience sampling will be used to draw the study sample. Snowball sampling will be used as a backup sampling method to gather the study participants. Convenience sampling will be used in this research because it is economical, convenient, simple, and prompt.

Sample Size

   In this study, a sample size of 20 to 30 participants will be used. This is because qualitative research methods are more effective when employed on a small sample size. The study will include 30 participants from 3 different age sets. When choosing the study sample size and participants, the researcher will ensure that the sample chosen participants meet all the selection criteria and requirements. Ensuring that the participants chosen meet all the requirements, relevance, and specifications will help the researcher obtain reliable, valid, and relevant data for the study. When selecting the sample size, the researcher should always keep in mind the study method and the research design. Some research designs have specific parameters, controls, and aims for selecting the sample size for the study. The researcher should also put in mind the saturation principle when selecting the sample size.  Large sample sizes usually give detailed results and descriptions of a research problem. However, they also give repetitive information and data in some cases. The primary aim of most qualitative studies is to gain saturation, especially during the data collection process. A researcher obtains saturation when there is no more data obtained, even on adding more participants to the study. Therefore, in this study, the researcher should adhere to the study’s primary goal, which involves uncovering different opinions with the 30 participants sample size and limiting the study once the researcher reaches the point of saturation. 

Eligibility Criteria

In this study, a specific eligibility criterion was used to select the study’s participants. Eligibility criteria involve guidelines that give a detailed description that all participants of a study must meet.  Different studies have the different selection and eligibility criteria depending on their research problems, designs, and methods. Most studies’ eligibility criteria include age, gender, education, and other factors depending on the study’s aim. In this study, the eligibility included two primary factors: age and gender. The participants of the study were supposed to be women aged between 18 to 45 years, especially college and university students.

Unit of Analysis

The unit of analysis that will be used in this study is women. A unit of analysis is an entity or group that a researcher analyzes during a study. Individual units completed in the study are used to determine the study’s unit of analysis. In this study, women are the unit of the analysis because the research is primarily based on women. The research focuses on women and not any other gender. Therefore, this makes it appropriate for women to be used as the unit of analysis in this study.

Data Collection Methods and Tools

Data collection is a crucial part when conducting a study. This process allows the researcher to understand the research problem more. In this study, the data collected will allow the researcher to understand the psychology of women by understanding some women-related aspects such as premenstrual syndrome and postmenstrual syndrome. Since this study follows a qualitative research design, qualitative methods will be used in the data collection phase. There are numerous qualitative data collection methods. They include interviews, questionnaires, focus groups, and observations. Interviews include open-ended questions that yield detailed responses from the participants about their feelings, perceptions, knowledge, and experiences about the research problem (Austin & Sutton, 2014). Data collected during interviews may include verbatim quotations and contexts that can be interpreted. 

Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. In structured interviews, the researcher usually has a predetermined list of various questions arranged according to a specific algorithm and acts as the guiding basis during the interviews. One of the limitations of structured interviews is that they limit improvisation as the researcher follows a fixed list of questions during the interviews (Austin & Sutton, 2014). However, one of their main advantages is that they ensure consistency among the participants during the interviews. Structured interviews take less time than the other types of interviews since the researcher has little or no chances of deviating from the given topics (Austin & Sutton, 2014). Structured interviews also allow the researcher to easily compare the responses given since the questions asked to all the respondents are uniform. 

Unstructured interviews do not have a predetermined list of questions. Instead, the researcher begins with a specific open-ended question and then proceeds with other questions based on the responses given by the participant. During unstructured interviews, the researcher is required to have excellent interviewing skills. Also, he or she is required to ask the questions in a way that makes the respondents give detailed answers to each question (Austin & Sutton, 2014). Semi-structured interviews are a combination of both structured and unstructured interviews. During these interviews, the researcher usually has a list of questions and can freely ask any follow-up or clarification questions. Semi-structured interviews are more flexible compared to structured and unstructured interviews. 

The type of questionnaires used in the qualitative data collection process is open-ended questionnaires. They allow the participants to provide in-depth responses to the research questions. They allow respondents to give their open texts regarding their experiences, feelings, and opinions about the study problem and do not limit the questions asked to specific responses or options. Open-ended questionnaires reduce bias since the researcher is not allowed to choose or include any options for the participants. Therefore, they allow the participants to give more detailed responses beyond the researcher’s anticipation (Austin & Sutton, 2014). However, one of the limitations of these types of questionnaires is that they may take a long to be completed, hence extending the completion time of the entire study. Also, the opinions and experiences provided by the study’s participants may be subjective. In some cases, the responses may be biased, difficult to record, and code answers.

Focus groups are among the primary methods of collecting data in qualitative research. Generally, focus groups are like unstructured interviews that have numerous participants. Focus groups create a free interaction environment between the researcher and the participants.  They allow the researcher to collect group-generated data, which may be challenging at times (Austin & Sutton, 2014). Focus groups also allow the researcher to seek clarification and help collect data about the participants’ opinions, perspectives, and feelings towards the research problem. Observations are also a useful method of collecting data. Observation involves using an observable experience to describe behaviors, interactions, activities, and actions of people. Observation can be used along with other data collection methods such as interviews and focus groups. It can also be used as a data collection method on its own. 

Choosing the most appropriate data collection method is a crucial part of every research process. This is because the data collected during this period usually reflects the opinions, experiences, and feelings of people towards the given research questions. The researcher should also come up with a way of storing and retrieving the data collected. In interviews and focus groups, such methods may include audio recording and video recording.

In this study, the data collection method that was used is open-ended questionnaires. This is because it is economical and does not consume a lot of time. An open-ended questionnaire was designed and issued to the study’s participants. Thorough literature research was done during the designing process. Some of the questions from the questionnaire were adapted from previous studies on the topic. The questions were modified, and only the relevant ones were included in the questionnaires. After designing the questionnaires, they were reviewed by two qualified doctors and psychologists within the institution. The questionnaires were first tested on ten respondents to test for clarity, relevance, and coherence before being administered to the actual participants of the study.

The questionnaires comprised four sections. The first section included data such as demographic, income, age, education, and marital status. The second section included questions enquiring whether the participants were aware of both premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes, their signs and symptoms, onset, and duration. It also included the participants’ attitude towards premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes and their impact on their lives, including the aspects of stress and mood swings. In the third section, the participants were asked about some of the treatment options of premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes and some ways of reducing their symptoms. In the fourth section, the participants were asked to give their opinions on whether therapy before and after the menstrual flow is essential.

Beta Testing

In this study, the researcher conducted beta testing to determine the questionnaires’ reliability and relevance. The questionnaires designed were sent to ten participants through email. The participants were required to go through the questions and respond to the questions appropriately. Through beta testing, the researcher obtained feedback on whether the research question and sub-questions would provide relevant data for the study. It also helped the researcher determine whether the questionnaires needed any restructuring or rephrasing for the respondents to give in-depth responses. The participants responded to most of the questions. They gave detailed and informative answers to all the questions. Therefore, the researcher did not have to change or restructure any of the questions since the questions already captured the critical information required for the study.

Methodology

Getting Institutional Approval

In this study, the primary participants will include women in college and universities from 18 years and above, up to 45 years. Therefore, before commencing the data collection process, the researcher should get approval from the institutions involved to allow them to carry out the study. Getting institutional permission for the research will give the researcher a conducive environment for conducting the study and a warm reception. In this study, the researcher had to acquire formal permission to be allowed to carry out the study in the selected colleges and universities. The researcher had to write letters of permission to the selected colleges and universities where the study would be conducted. These letters requested the institutions for permission to conduct the study on their grounds. After receiving these letters, the management of the individual institutions reviewed the requests by thoroughly checking the problem statement, requirements, and need for the study and whether the institutions will be an appropriate place to carry out the study. 

Obtaining Institutional Review Board (IRB) Approval

Institutional Review Boards (IRB) are ethical committees in charge of reviewing and monitoring studies involving human subjects. The primary objective of IRB is to protect human participants in a study through a periodic and advanced review of the ethical guidelines and acceptability of the researcher’s proposals for human research. In the US, the regulation codified IRBs in the last three decades. Since then, IRBs have become a significant law requirement, especially for jurisdictions across the globe (Grady, 2015). IRBs check whether the given research proposal is according to the ethical requirements when conducting research, the availability of biases and whether the entire study complies with the laws and regulations set to protect human respondents or participants (Grady, 2015). Therefore, IRBs are an essential part when conducting any research.

IRB has the mandate to ask the researcher for any clarifications, modifications, approve, or disapprove the research. IRB focuses on protecting the rights and welfare of human subjects or participants in the study. It strives to ensure that the researcher takes the appropriate steps during the study to protect the human participants’ welfare and rights. This study involves human participants. Therefore, the researcher had to obtain IRB approval to be allowed to commence and proceed with the study. The researcher had to fill the IRB research project application. The researcher also had to prepare the informed consent documents as required and then later submit the study’s proposal form. After IRB approved the submitted documents, the researcher was required to begin the data collection process and then later submit the closeout form. 

The researcher had to apply and obtain IRB approval before commencing the study. This application was made online by filling and uploading the required documentation to the IRB research office department for review. The researcher had to ensure that the application was complete because incomplete application submissions would be rejected automatically. On submission of the application, IRB reviewed it and sent any questions for clarification. The IRB office then reviewed the entire application and notified the researcher of the feedback. 

Soliciting Participants

There are various ways to solicit participants for a given study. Some of the available methods include brochures, television and radio announcements, posters, email, and the internet in general. The researcher can also solicit participants from most public places. The process of soliciting and recruiting participants should encompass diversity in race, gender, and ethnicity. During this process, the researcher should also respect the privacy and confidentiality of the potential participants. The selected sample of participants was used to solicit participants in this study. First, colleges and universities were identified. The researcher then sent emails to the school departments inquiring about obtaining participants for the study from those departments. The researcher was then provided with potential participants. The researcher sent out emails to these potential participants. In the emails, the researcher described the study and its purpose and requested them to respond by indicating whether they would want to participate in that particular study. Some of them did not respond within the given time frame. Therefore, the researcher had to contact them again and remind them about giving their feedback. After the participants responded, the researcher sent them more details about the study. The researcher included some questions in these emails to gauge and decide on the participants to select for the study. The participants responded, and the researcher was able to select the study’s participants based on their responses to those questions. 

Informed Consent Letter and Consent Form

After soliciting participants and obtaining the right ones for the study, the researcher sent out a consent letter to all of them. The participants were required to check the box to show that they were ready and willing to contribute to the study, especially in the data collection process. In this letter, the researcher mentioned and explained the data collection methods that would be used during the study. In this case, the data collection method that would be used was open-ended questionnaires. They would allow the study’s participants to prepare themselves to respond to the questionnaires. Other contents of the consent form included the title of the study, problem statement, the researcher’s name, the supervisor, purpose of the study, risks involved, name, contact, and other details of the participants. 

In the consent letter, the researcher also explained how the participants’ data would be kept safe through encrypting the files, creating backups, and ensuring that the data cannot be accessed by unauthorized persons. The participants’ data would be kept at the supervisor’s office or faculty throughout the entire period. Once the study is completed, all the participants’ data would be deleted in all the files, including the backups. After issuing the consent forms, the researcher gave out the questionnaires to the participants. The participants were required to fill them by adequately answering each of the questions and then returning the filled questionnaires to the researcher who then reviewed the returned questionnaires and analyzed the participants’ responses. Also, once the participants signed off the informed consent letter, they were required to meet with the researcher to clarify any questions that may arise. The researcher was free to conduct this meeting face-to-face or through phone calls, emails, or video interactions. 

Results

Data Analysis

In qualitative research, data analysis refers to the systematic analysis of the data collected through questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, observations, or any non-textual data collected by the researcher during the data collection process. This study commenced the data collection and analysis process after the participants signed off the informed consent letter. The researcher then issued the participants with the questionnaires that had been designed earlier. The participants were required to fill the questionnaires and send them back to the researcher for analysis. During the data collection process, the researcher used various reliability and validity strategies, such as member checks, triangulation, adequate data collection engagement, reflexivity, audit trail, peer review, maximum variations, and thick descriptions. All these can also be done after the data analysis process. In such cases, the researcher is required to provide the participants with the results obtained after analysis to check for resonance and accuracy based on the participants’ experiences. In this study, open-ended questionnaires were used in the data collection process. Therefore, the researcher had to group the responses given to make the data analysis process easier and manageable. 

Data Analysis Procedure

In this study, thematic analysis was used to conduct the entire data analysis process. Thematic analysis is a qualitative data analysis method that analyzes non-numerical data, such as questionnaires, interviews, and other texts. In thematic analysis, the researcher closely examines the data collected by thoroughly checking for any common patterns, ideas, and themes. In this study, six major steps were followed during thematic analysis. They are as discussed below. 

Familiarization

During familiarization, the researcher was required to check the data collected and understand it thoroughly. This would give the researcher a general overview of the entire data before analyzing each data item. In this step, the researcher was allowed to take notes, transcribe audios, and even read through the participants’ textual responses. 

Coding

In this step, the researcher was required to highlight the sections in the text, whether phrases or sentences. The researcher was then required to come up with codes and labels describing the highlighted content. 

Generating themes

During this step, the researcher was required to thoroughly check the created codes and identify any patterns that emerged from these codes. Then, the researcher would come up with specific themes according to the generated patterns. The researcher was allowed to combine several codes into one theme. The researcher could also discard any vague or irrelevant codes, especially those that were not present in the data. 

Reviewing themes

In this step, the researcher had to review the themes by thoroughly checking them to ensure that they represented the data accurately. Therefore, the researcher had to go back to the data collected and compare them with the generated themes. In case of any problems with the themes, the researcher could split, combine, or even discard them to increase their usefulness and accuracy. 

Defining and naming themes

Now having an accurate and appropriate list of themes, the researcher was required to define each of the themes. To achieve this, the researcher had to formulate the meaning of each of them. The researcher also had to figure out the usefulness of each theme or how each of the themes helped him or she understand the data collected. 

Writing the analysis

The last step of this process involved the write-up. After checking and reviewing everything about the data, the researcher had to complete a write-up about the data analysis. 

Findings

In this study, most of the females who participated were single. More than 86% of the participants had heard of both premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes. More than 72% of them gave a correct definition of premenstrual syndrome and postmenstrual syndrome. 79% of the females said that they usually experience premenstrual syndrome, while 69% said they usually experience post menstrual syndrome. 20% of the women agreed to not experiencing both premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes. The participants gave some of the symptoms of both premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes. Some of the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome that the participants gave included anxiety, depression, irritability, mood swings, stress, headache, social withdrawal, anger outbursts, gastrointestinal problems, and changes in their sleep patterns. These are some of the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome that have been captured in most scientific studies. The participants also gave some of the symptoms of post menstrual syndrome. The symptoms included mood swings, irritability, anxiety, anger, sleeping difficulties, and depression. Some of these symptoms were similar to those of premenstrual syndrome. 

More than 60% of the participants agreed that both premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes affected their normal activities and routine. More than half of them agreed that stress exacerbated both syndromes. The participants had different attitudes towards premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes. More than two-thirds of the participants reported that they were likely to consult a doctor or go for regular check-ups for both menstrual syndromes. A quarter of the participants believed that menstrual leave at the workplace should be an option, while more than half of them agreed that premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes are significant issues that need to be addressed. Therefore, more than 50% of the participants agreed that therapy before and after the menstrual flow is essential. Some of the treatment options for relieving symptoms of both premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes that the participants gave included doing a lot of exercises, using analgesics, traditional remedies, vitamin supplements, antidepressants, and homeopathic medications.

Discussion

  A significant number of women are adversely affected by both premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes. In the current society, topics such as menstruation are considered taboo, which makes women believe that premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes are not issues that should be discussed or issues that they can ask for help for, even if they have adverse impacts in their lives. Although most of the women in this study were aware of premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes, some of them were unaware of these phenomena. This shows that there is still a knowledge deficiency in the society on both premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes. 

There is no specific tool that can be used to evaluate the prevalence of both premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes. This may be a limitation to this study and when conducting other studies in the future. This limitation may lead to discrepancies among the responses given by the respondents in different studies. Mohib et al. (2018) define premenstrual syndrome as the collection of affective and somatic symptoms before the manifestation and occurrence of menstruation and ending at the start of the menstrual flow. According to the data collected in this study, affective symptoms in both premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes were more prevalent compared to physical symptoms. The affective symptoms included anger, mood swings, stress, depression, irritability, and depression. The physical symptoms identified after data analysis included skin problems and headaches. The findings of this study provide that mood swings, stress, and anxiety are the most prominent symptoms of premenstrual syndrome and post menstrual syndrome.

Premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes have significant impacts on the lives and daily routines of women. They affect their social, personal, and occupational lives in various ways. Some participants during the study described both syndromes as disabling conditions. They also noted increased stress during these syndromes, which negatively affects their routines and daily lives. Some of the participants also reported that both menstrual syndromes brought them a lot of fear, affecting their way of handling other activities in their lives.

Ethical Considerations

Marianna (2011) defines ethics as a set of principles that govern the actions and choices of people in a given activity. Ethical considerations are principles that govern the actions and choices of researchers when conducting a study. Ethics is a significant branch of philosophy that focuses on decision-making dynamics regarding what is right or wrong (Marianna, 2011). Therefore, ethical considerations in research are essential as they ensure that researchers make the right or appropriate choices and decisions when conducting studies. Ethics are, therefore, an integral part of research that researchers are required to uphold at any given time (Enago Academy, 2019). In this study, the researcher followed all the ethical guidelines, especially in some critical areas of the study, such as soliciting for participants. The primary ethical considerations that researchers must follow in all their research work include obtaining informed consent, the beneficence or do not harm principle, upholding confidentiality and anonymity, respecting individuals’ privacy, and not using vulnerable groups of people as participants in a study. 

Informed consent is one of the major ethical requirements when conducting a study. It implies that individuals give their consent to participate in a study knowingly, intelligently, and voluntarily. Informed consent protects the participants’ rights to autonomy (Marianna, 2011). Informed consent includes the autonomy rights of the individuals through their self-determination. It also protects the participants from assaults based on the patients’ integrity. It also protects their veracity and personal liberty (Marianna, 2011). In this study, the researcher followed this guideline by obtaining the participants’ informed consent before commencing the study. 

Beneficence is an ethical principle that means being of benefit and not doing any harm. This ethical guideline requires the researcher to do significant and effective research without harming the participants to promote and serve the welfare of the study’s constituents. In this study, the researcher upheld this guideline. The researcher did not also use vulnerable groups of individuals as research subjects. Vulnerable groups of people are classified as those that cannot protect their welfare and rights and may include captive populations such as prisoners, people with mental illnesses, children, people who are critically ill, those with learning disabilities, and unconscious people (Marianna, 2011). The researcher also upheld the anonymity, confidentiality, and privacy of the participants by keeping their details private and keeping them from unauthorized people. Therefore, this study was conducted with regard to the set ethical guidelines and considerations. 

Validity and Reliability

Leung (2015) defines validity as the appropriateness of the data, tools, and processes used to conduct a particular study. Validity focuses on determining whether the methodology used is appropriate for collecting the required data. It also determines the appropriateness of the design used, the sampling method, data analysis procedure, and the conclusion drawn (Leung, 2015). On the other hand, reliability refers to the actual replicability of the study’s results and processes followed. However, the diverse changes and paradigms in qualitative research make it challenging to obtain a precise definition for reliability. Therefore, reliability is generally about consistency. There are five ways in which a researcher can enhance the reliability of a study’s processes and findings. They include comprehensive data usage, refutal analysis, using tables, constant comparison of data, and inclusivity of the deviant case (Leung, 2015). Most of these methods were applied in this study to enhance its reliability and validity.

In this study, the researcher also used some strategies to enhance the study’s reliability and validity. The strategies included member checks, triangulation, adequately engaging in the data collection process, reflexivity, and peer review. Triangulation involves using numerous methods and data sources in qualitative studies to establish a comprehensive understanding of the research problem (Carter et al., 2014). Triangulation helps a researcher test for reliability and validity by converging information or data from various sources (Carter et al., 2014).  In this study, the results used multiple data sources and investigators, which is a form of triangulation, hence improving the study’s validity and reliability. Member checking also referred to as respondent validation, is a method used by researchers to explore the credibility of the study results (Birt et al., 2016). In this method, the researcher returns the results obtained to the participants for them to check the resonance and accuracy of their responses (Birt et al., 2016). In this study, member checking was one of the primary methods used to check for the validity of the study’s results.

The researcher also used the peer review technique to check for validity. The researcher discussed the entire process of the study with colleagues, including the emerging patterns with the raw data and the possible tentative interpretations. The researcher also applied reflexivity by reflecting and taking note of all the differences that may be caused by factors such as biases, assumptions, and theoretical orientation. The researcher also ensured that he adequately engaged in the data collection process to ensure that saturation was reached.

Conclusion

This study focuses on the psychology of women by generally exploring their biological and psychological factors that contribute to their behavior. The study majorly explores the aspects of premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes in women. It aims at determining whether women have knowledge on both premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes, their attitudes towards them, their symptoms, treatment options, and their opinions on whether these conditions are significant topics that should be addressed. More than half of the participants recognize that premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes are significant and sensitive issues that society never addresses much at some point. They agree that it is essential to expose young females to therapy before and after menstrual flow to make them aware of these syndromes, some of the symptoms, and some of the ways that can be used to relieve their symptoms.

Although some of the women in this study demonstrate knowledge of premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes, these two topics are among the major female-related areas requiring more awareness. There is still a considerable deficiency in the importance of being knowledgeable about these topics. Thorough research is still needed on the topic to bring more information to women on these areas and enhance their knowledge of them. The research should be conducted on large populations using a large sample size and should include females from numerous socioeconomic backgrounds to provide a better assessment of the situation and help in strategizing on the management of the problem. From the research results, stress has been identified as a prevalent condition that exacerbates both premenstrual and postmenstrual syndromes. Therefore, learning how to manage stress can help relieve the symptoms of both syndromes.

Recommendations

  The researcher should consider various recommendations when conducting similar studies in the future to avoid experiencing some of the limitations faced when conducting this study. The researcher should establish a way of managing or controlling bias when conducting the study. Research bias occurs when the researcher influences the results of a study to achieve a specific outcome. In such cases, the researcher vouches for a particular outcome other than the ones given. Researcher bias can occur at any given stage of research, whether during the data collection process, analysis, study design. There are numerous types of researcher bias. They include question-order bias, confirmation bias, wording, and leading questions bias, and cultural bias. All these types may negatively impact the results of a study. The researcher should therefore incorporate methods for controlling bias in future studies. Such methods include the use of body language and member checking. The researcher should use a larger sample size in the future to get more detailed and diverse responses from numerous participants. Incorporating these recommendations in future studies will increase the validity and reliability of the results obtained. 

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