TOPIC: ANALYSIS OF THEORY AND TECHNIQUES OF INTERVIEW FOR HEALTH WORKERS IN THE UNITED STATES
COURSE: THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF INTERVIEW II
NAME: FESTUS UWAKHEMEN ASIKHIA
STUDENT ID#: UPD71055HPS80208
MAJOR: PSYCHOLOGY
PROGRAM: POST DOCTORATE
DATE: 9TH April 2021
Background of the Study
The scientific process that starts at understanding the environment and attempting to gather information aims to solve human problems by creating physical solutions in materials, devices, machines, and new knowledge. Within this process lies the critical item – problem-solving by collecting data. According to Locklear (2012), data collection is a crucial aspect of science and general research. Research scientists make it a point of duty as a matter of logical reasoning and a sense of responsibility to collect relevant data to solve societal problems. The interview comes into the purview as it is one of the most commonly utilized means of collecting data relevant for research. According to Byrman (2012), the interview process, as a data collection method in research, is an abstract form. The abstract nature of interviews hinges on its predisposition as involving direct human contact rather than the experimentation process or focus groups.
Description of the Subject Matter
The interview concept stems from the general idea that human knowledge and experiences present a critical priority in research and behavioral studies. According to Brief (2012), the need for an interview results from flaws observable in the non-verbal forms of data collection. The interview also seems to play a crucial role in research and other areas of human endeavors, ranging from scientific studies to media presentations and therapeutic intervention sessions carried out by medical personnel and counselors. In essence, an interview is an activity created to mine information through the use of questions in oral form. There are usually two parties in an interview session- the interviewer who asks the questions and the interviewee who answers the questions.
According to Warmbrod (2001), the interview process begins with formulating the right questions relevant to the research problem, designing motivating questions that would inspire the interviewees, and creating a conducive environment for the interview session to achieve maximum response and precise information for analysis. This is known as the planning phase, and it heralds the actual interview itself, which then leads to the analysis and reflection phase. It is seen that the research process itself is stemmed out of the human behavioral analysis, as it attempts to interpret the opinions and inner disposition of individuals to a particular subject matter.
The direct interview type is of three forms, according to Tejlingen (2014), and these forms are the structured interview, semi-structured interview, and the unstructured interview.
Structured Interview
This form of the interview involves using preset questions designed and arranged by the researcher, with a systematic and laid-down order. There are preset order and fixed number of wording in a structured interview and is similar to a questionnaire survey, only that the latter has a form of open-ended question style. This form of interview aims to measure abstract elements like attitudes and fact-seeking activity and get precise information without any direct undue interference by the researcher.
Semi-Structured Interview
One form of interview used for the scientific process, particularly for research-based data collection, is the semi-structured interview. Semi-structured interviews are used to collect précised and well-articulated qualitative data, which creates appropriateness and convenience for studies involving human behavioral traits and attitudes. (McCammon 2017)
Semi-structured interviews are based on semi-structured interview material layout, a systematic representation of questions or areas that the interviewer is expected to glance through. To maximize utilization of interview time, the material layout operates the vital purpose of drilling the respondents systematically and comprehensively and focuses the interview on the desired area of study. The material layout questions comprise the primary question and several other associated minor questions connected to the core question, which is subsequently improved by test-running the interview guide. (Harry He, 2012; G.B Willis, 2015)
This form of interview is best suited for studies involving beliefs, values, and norms, which create ease and allow the respondents or interviewees to operate at their pace without interfering with the data collected and its level of privacy.
Unstructured Interview
In this form of an interview, there are no preset questions, and hence the conversation between the interviewer and interviewee is not restricted to one area of study. The researcher stays within the study area of the subject matter but develops the conversation by allowing it to flow seamlessly.
To make interview data effective, recording the interviews is considered an appropriate choice, but sometimes, issues arise between the researcher and participants. Hand-written notes during the interview are relatively unreliable, and the researcher might miss some key points. The interview recording makes it easier for the researcher to focus on the interview content and the verbal prompts and thus enhances the direct word-to-word version of the interview. (Tejlingen, 2014)
The Interview Process as an element in Research Methodology
Research methodology can be described in practical terms as a clearly defined layout or architectural design in which the researcher makes concerted efforts to solve problems by mapping out specific strategies. The methods utilized in behavioral sciences research works are mainly important because they determine the success, precision level, and reliability of these studies (Ashlenqueti, 2014).
There are two approaches or methods of research, i.e., Quantitative and Qualitative, that are readily utilized for research work. The most significant differentiating factor between the two approaches is the presence of numbers and statistical figures. The choice of research approach is usually based on initially expressed research questions and the data available for analyzing the stated questions. (Brief, 2012, XUL, 2012)
The qualitative approach dwells on aspects or processes and meanings that cannot be quantified in terms of amount, availability, or frequency. In the other direction, the qualitative approach ignites and infuses a clearer articulated perspective of the subject matter under review, especially by looking at the abstract nature of the research problem to be solved. Moreover, qualitative researchers stress the socially constructed nature of reality that states the researcher’s relationship and the research element under investigation. On the other hand, quantitative research personnel pay more attention to numerical values, statistical detailing, and analyzing the relationships between variables. (Bryman, 2012)
Analysis of Techniques Used in the Interview Process
The interview process is not just as simple as it seems to be perceived, as it can take several forms and styles to achieve diverse goals and objectives. For research and therapy sessions, the following techniques can be used for interviews, and they are discussed in the course of this paper.
Telephone interview technique
This form of interview is carried out using a telephone or a smartphone, as a common trend in the 21st century where digital devices and handheld smartphones are a common phenomenon. In telephone interviews, the interaction occurs with the aid of voice or audio technology and can be recorded and transcribed before it is analyzed accordingly. This interviewing technique is usually easy to collect and access and provides a convenient way for data to be collected as the interviewees feel relaxed and can be willing to give out sensitive information. However, it hinders nonverbal communication, which is an essential aspect in using interviews for data collection and therapeutic interventions. This drawback makes the telephone technique seen as a secondary to direct interview, which is seen as the primary form of an interview.
Video Interview Technique
With the expanded proficiency of video technology, many organizations and health facilities are adopting the video technique for their therapy and counseling sessions, especially during the recent lockdown occasioned by the Covid-19 pandemic and its resultant aftershocks. According to Tejlingen (2014), a video interview allows the interviewer to analyze the interviewee’s physical attributes without a physical meet and is highly effective in collecting data related to the contextual study than a telephone interview.
Direct Interview
In this interview, the interviewer and the interviewee meet on a face-to-face basis, and the data collector can get as much information as he requires. The direct interview technique helps compassionate therapy sessions and data collection for research purposes, as researchers visualize it as the primary interview form since it includes data collection through verbal and nonverbal means.
Theories Related to the Interview Process
Several theories and theoretical frameworks can be used to support the premise of the interview and interviewing process as a data collection tool, a technique in therapy, and a means of recruitment for human resource personnel in organizations. The following theories and models as derived from the human resource aspect of the interview process will be analyzed in this work.
Test Taking Model
Arvey et al. (1990) develop this theoretical approach in individual reaction research. The theory explores the impact of a job candidate’s motivation during the interview process and how it influences their test validity and performance (Arvey et al.,1990). Nine different dimensions were measured on a test attitude scale. Of these dimensions, test motivation was the most significant, as it accounted for most of the variance in the scale (Gilliland and Steiner, 2012). Test anxiety has also been found to have a negative relationship with test performance; however, it does not seem to impact actual job performance (Hausknecht et al., 2004, McCarthy et al., 2013). This divergence between test performance and actual job performance underscores the non-neutrality of the tests themselves.
In the same vein, a self-serving bias mechanism has also been cited for influencing the individual’s perception of different selection methods (Nikolaou, 2015). Self-serving bias is the extent to which the individual’s view of his positive self-image affects test-taking motivation. As a result, individuals blame their poor performance on the belief that the selection method is not valid or irrelevant in an attempt to fend off unwelcome confounding information on self and maintain a positive self-image (Gilliland and Steiner, 2012).
Theory of Reasoned Action/Planned Behavior
This theory combines two models of reasoned action and planned behavior, which explain the predictability and understandability of human behavior in critical terms. Deductions from the theoretical model show that individuals’ behavior is under the influence of certain factors, including behavioral attitude, reasonable behavioral control, and subjective norms, resulting in greater perceived control and increased likelihood of intentions governing behavior changes.
Social psychological theory
Herriot (1989) first explores social psychology theory’s potential, focusing on the perceptual process that binds the reaction and two-way interaction between an organization and the individuals during the selection process. He develops his ideas further by including the individual’s social identity and how these are linked with the organizations’ identities, as reflected in individuals’ perception of the organizational culture (Herriot, 2004). Thus, the similarity or difference between the two – personal and organizational – identities will influence the individual’s perception of the selection method employed and the organization as a potential employer (Ployhart and Harold, 2004).
Invasion of privacy model
Bauer et al. (2006) develop a more recent approach to the individual’s reaction model, termed the privacy model invasion. Specifically, Bauer et al. (2006) examine the negative consequences of invading individuals’ personal lives through selection methods involving integrity and drug testing, and personality testing. The use of terms like invasion underscores a more extensive set of normative and ethical claims. They communicate a concern with the consequences of a known public-private boundary’s transgression in the individual’s life. However, Gilliland and Steiner (2012) argued that this model should not stand alone but rather be combined with the organizational justice perspective, which examines justice perceptions on dimensions such as the opportunity to perform and job relatedness.
Trust and Individual’s Reaction
Another developing issue in individual reaction research is the role of trust and trustworthiness during the so-called pre-entry period, that is, the process of attracting quality candidates to the organization. Klotz et al. (2013) state that individuals and organizations’ ability to supply proof that each party will always fulfill the expectation of each other when unexpected future events arise is crucial in both the organization’s job offer decision and individual’s job choice decision. In order words, the trust and trustworthiness that recruiting organizations and job individuals perceive in each other become essential during the pre-entry process.
Walker et al. (2013) explore further trust and trustworthiness issues, focusing on how individuals react to recruitment activities. They propose a conceptual model drawn from three existing behaviorist management theories; uncertainty reduction, signaling, and uncertainty management theories. They combine these to examine the relationship between job individuals’ recruitment interaction with the company and the organizational attraction (Walker et al., 2013). They conclude that organizations should focus on their communication process and policies as they matter significantly to individuals during the recruitment and selection process. They constitute the most robust available signaling mechanism.
The Behavioural Theory
Behaviourism also called the learning perspective, where any physical action is behavior, is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things that organisms do, including acting, thinking, and feeling, can and should be regarded as behaviors. The theory used in this study is B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory. The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behavior can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or hypothetical constructs such as the mind. Behaviourism comprises the position that all theories should have observational correlates but that there are no philosophical differences between publicly observable processes such as actions and privately observable processes such as thinking and feeling. Also, the frontiers of knowledge’s behavior theory were expanded to include internal reinforcements like thoughts and emotions in the stability of such behavior in an individual. In other words, the internal reinforcement helps to maintain and sustain the external rewards and punishments. (Seruvorno, 2017)
Target Audience
The audience targeted for this research study is the active working population of the United States located within its healthcare sector, especially those working with government or state-owned medical facilities, privately owned establishments and laboratories, and rehabilitation and community health centers.
Methods
The research method that would be used in this study for the generating of data is the survey method of research. It will, however, be conducted in the form of semi-structured oral interviews and questionnaire administration. The data derived from descriptive research is analyzed using descriptive statistical tools of frequencies and percentages that would reveal the factors affecting physical structures and how they can be utilized in the health sector of the United States. The sampling technique for this study is the stratified random sampling method, based on the research targeted at collecting data from various strata and segments of the United States health sector, ranging from staff in government-owned health institutions to private medical facilities as well as rehabilitation centers. The data collected would be analyzed and presented with the cognitive content analysis. The analyzed data was then presented in descriptive statistics in a frequency distribution, mainly frequencies and percentages. The data will be presented mainly in qualitative means, using content analysis to state observations and make inferences since the concept of interview and interviewing is more like an abstract concept that requires a great deal of introspection and analytical efficiency.
Results
Concerning the survey questions, the participants were assessed based on the level of involvement of the different interview forms and their impact level in the United States healthcare sector. In the course of analyzing the survey, it was seen that 54% of the respondents thought that the internet and telephone interview technique was the most relevant form of interviewing in the healthcare sector, while 26% believed it was a direct interview. Another 11% suggested group interviews, while 9% thought physical abilities were the most relevant component. In all, most of the respondents thought that the component areas of study in behavior modification all have relevance in the healthcare sector, especially for counseling sessions and therapeutic interventions, and are all significantly impacted by the concept of social motivation.
Conclusion
The interaction between individuals from time immemorial down to contemporary ages has always been a source of inspiration, education, and learning to solve human problems and develop more robust and viable societies. Therefore, the interview process has been seen by scientists and researchers to be an effective way to get sufficient information needed to solve man’s problems and create solutions to societal problems- which is the essence of research at the first instance. To effectively carry out the interview process, specific techniques and utilize such hypothesis for the purpose of solving problems , ranging from direct contact with researcher or through telephone conversation and the use of the internet through emails, web pages, and social media networks. This study was able to connect theoretical models and frameworks to empirical evidence to effectively analyze the techniques and methods used for interviews as a tool in the healthcare sector of the United States for therapeutic interventions and counseling sessions, amongst other applications. By carrying out a survey, the study was able to decipher the most active and relevant interview technique used in the United States healthcare sector and thus concluded that the use of interviews was an effective way of collecting data and undertaking therapeutic interventions.
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